Sample Psychology Paper: The effects parenting styles have on an adult

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Title: The effects parenting styles have on an adult

 

Growth and development scholars have been keen to design empirical studies aimed at investigating the effects that parenting styles have on an adult. For the most part, it may be possible to ascertain certain trends in this area of psychological analysis. The present paper sets out to explore research on growth and development of an individual and the way in which it influences the individual as an adult.

In one of the studies, Carlo et al (2011) analyzed the views of development scholars and reported their views to the effect that parents play a crucial role in nurturing pro-social behaviors among adolescents. The study by Carlo et al (2011) took the form of a longitudinal investigation, and the authors noted that studies of this type are very rare. In their study, the participants were boys and girls, with their numbers being 372 and 358 respectively, and their mean age being 10.84 years. This study found out that parental sympathy, warmth, and aspects of pro-social reasoning on moral issues were very much predictive of the individuals’ behaviors once they became adults. Upon further analysis, the researchers found out that the effects were bidirectional, such that early pro-social behaviors almost perfectly predicted the pro-sociality of the adolescents as well as later parenting. From a theoretical perspective, the study by Carlo et al (2011) supported the moral internalization as well as cognitive-developmental theories of pro-social development.

Whereas some studies focus on the role of parents in general, such as the one by Carlos et al (2011), others focus on the role played by fathers only. For instance, Coley et al (2011) did such a study, whereby data was gathered from a Three-City Study. In this study, the researchers started by acknowledging that policymakers and scholars have traditionally acknowledged the role that fathers play in parenting, although there is scanty research in this area.

In Coley’s et al (2011) study, an analysis was done on whether the parenting practices of fathers at the early childhood stage was an indicator of a lasting link with the cognitive skills of children from low-income status as they went through the stage of middle childhood. Coley et al (2011) found out that the stimulating and warm parenting of the father was a predictor of enhanced math and reading skills among children as they went through middle childhood. In cases where fathers relied on restrictive discipline, math and reading skills tended to be lower (Coley et al 2011). This study contained special attributes because of the way these links were assessed in terms of their independence to the parenting styles of mothers. This comparison also doubled as a control for a wide range of characteristics of the family and the child as well. The study also noted a similarity between the parenting styles of resident and non-resident fathers in Hispanic and African American families. This contrasts sharply with the study by Carlo et al (2011), where focus has been on a middle class Hispanic neighborhood only.

In yet other studies, a comparison is normally made between the role of fathers and that of mothers in terms of parenting styles. In studies of this nature, it appears that the longitudinal approach is commonly preferred. In such a recent study, Hoeve et al (2011) assessed the father-mother association with regard to male and female delinquency. The study sample consisted of 330 Dutch families in which there was a son or daughter aged between 14 and 22. Two measurement waves were considered, with years between them.

Hoeve et al (2011) came up with the finding that there was an explicit interaction based on the sex in terms of the parenting style adopted. For instance, when neglectful parenting was adopted in males, the affected individuals ended up exhibiting higher delinquency levels. On the other hand, for delinquency in females, the problem was traced back to permissive parenting. These findings seem to confirm popular perceptions regarding the effects of neglectful parenting and permissive parenting styles on male and female adolescents respectively. Moreover, the lowest delinquency levels were recorded in those families where at least one of the parents was authoritative. Expectedly, where both parents are neglectful, one can confidently expect the level of delinquency to be the highest (Hoeve et al, 2011). Clearly, it is discernible here that the level of delinquency among adults depends on the parenting styles of both parents.

In other cases, scholars have delved even deeper into the topic, by assessing the interactive, bidirectional effects between parenting style and the temperamental attributes of the child. In most cases, studies of this nature are thought to be of great use in fine-tuning theoretical models regarding the role that parenting styles play in the children’s development and the attendant adjustment problems, particularly issues of temperament. In a study focusing on bidirectional and interactive effects, Kiff, Lengua, and Zalewski (2011) reviewed evidence of a relationship between parenting styles and children’s attributes of self-regulation, fear, frustration, and impulsivity. This review was used as a basis for making propositions on an overall model accounting for individual differences among children in response to parenting styles used.

Consequently, according to Kiff, Lengua, and Zalewski (2011), children who are low in effortful control and high in impulsivity and frustration tend to be more vulnerable to the negative effects of inappropriate parenting styles. In turn, many inappropriate parenting behaviors are predictors of an increase in these attributes among children. Interestingly, fearfulness, frustration, and effortful control sometimes seem to be sources of elicitation for parenting behaviors that are predictive of an increase in these attributes. Kiff, Lengua, and Zalewski (2011) also note that irritability may also expose children to very negative parenting behaviors.

For fearfulness, a complex situation appears to manifest itself, whereby the responses of the children to parenting behaviors are increased, while at other times they are mitigated, all the while operating in different ways across gender (Kiff, Lengua, and Zalewski, 2011). According to Kiff, Lengua, and Zalewski (2011), future research in this area should point towards improvement in research designs as well as analytical approaches in order to account for the direction of developmental changes as well as the effects of parenting styles on temperament over a long period of time.

There is no doubt that the longitudinal approach is the best approach for examining the changes in growth and development under the influence of different parenting styles. It is also clear that categorizing the sample examination into at least two phases is a crucial research design. These attributed are shared in the study done by Kiff, Lengua, and Zalewski (2011) as well as the one done by Lipscomb et al (2011). In the latter study, though, the scholars were investigating child negative emotionality, over-reactive parenting, and parenting efficacy among 382 adoptive families. The children in question were toddlers, and the first phase of analysis focused on the age of 9 months, followed by 18 months, and then 27 months. In the view of Lipscomb et al (2011), there is an association between a child’s negative emotionality and an increase in over-reactivity among parents as well as a decline in the level of maternal efficacy. The second aspect of this finding is unique in the way it attributes a special role to the parenting style of the mother.

In studies on growth and development and the influence of parents, there are many aspects that a researcher may want to focus on. Although the scope may seem abstract in some areas, the findings may provide new knowledge regarding different aspects of parenting on young people. In a seemingly abstract study, Lou et al (2010) explored what he referred to ‘internet parenting’, with the focus group being sixth grade students. The parenting style of the parents was assessed in relation to their internet skills. The cluster sampling approach was relied on to select a sample of 822 parents from 28 schools, and analysis was done using chi-square tests supplemented with descriptive statistics relating to the ‘internet parenting questionnaire’.

Lou et al (2010) found out that significant correlations exist among the behavior of parents of the students with regard to internet usage, internet literacy, parenting style, and internet parenting. Lou’s et al (2010) study is of great significance, considering that we are living in an information age, where reliance on internet has reached an extent that has attracted concern. Indeed, in the internet age, parenting styles are bound to change and it would be interesting to find out the trends that this change would take. Although Lou’s et al (2010) findings are not groundbreaking, they are indicative of the need for further research in this area.

According to McKinney, Milone, Renk (2011), parenting styles the parenting styles that are adopted are in most cases related to the nature of disciplinary measures that parents impose on their children. Moreover, when discipline techniques and parenting styles are coupled together, they exert a resounding influence on child outcomes (Lou et al, 2010). Lou et al (2010) focus on discipline and parenting styles and their influence on behavioral adjustment in early adolescence. In this regard, much is said to be known, although not much has been done when it comes to behavioral, attitudinal, and emotional adjustment during late adolescence or the so-called emerging adulthood (Lou et al, 2010).

In their study, Lou et al (2010) identified three main parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive. They also identify three discipline strategies: psychological aggressive, non-violent discipline, and physical assault. With regard to emotional adjustment in emerging adulthood, the three aspects studied include depression, anxiety, and self-esteem. In the study, which involved 526 participants, all of them aged between 18 and 22 years, Lou et al (2010) found out that gender is a significant factor in determining the level and nature of emotional adjustment during emerging adulthood.

A new dimension in child development outcomes that has so far not been discussed in the present study relates to intergenerational and multi-factorial influences (O’Brien 2010). In O’Brien’s (2010) study, the main factors that were identified as having an influence on the parenting styles include perception of social support, work outside the home setting, and the parenting style of grandparents. The study that yielded these findings was done on 82 immigrant mothers, who were requested to describe the factors influencing their parenting styles. However, a notable omission in the findings section is a highlight on the limitation of relying too much on the descriptive approach when carrying out such a study.

Some of the other main issues that have pervaded current literature on the effects of parenting styles on adults include inter-parental conflict (O’Donnell, 2010) and the influence of parental religiosity (Vermeer, 2011).  Regarding inter-parental conflict O’Donnell (2010) observes that conflict appraisals from the perspectives of both parents and children are important in creating an understanding on their influence. Vermeer (2011), on the other hand, observes that parental religiosity greatly influences people’s parenting styles. However, an analysis of responses given by 357 Dutch parents negated this observation, whereby religion did not emerge as a key factor influencing the way parents bring up their children.

In conclusion, interesting trends are discernible in current literature regarding parenting styles and their influence on emerging adults. More literature needs to be done on the adjustments that occur during emerging adulthood as a result of various parenting styles. There is also need to investigate further the effect of internet parenting on children. In terms of methodology and research design, longitudinal studies are the most frequently used approaches. On the overall, parenting styles are seen to influence children in significant ways. Moreover, gender differences are identified with regard to both responses to parenting styles among children and the tendency to use certain parenting styles among fathers and mothers.

 

References

Carlo, G., Mestre, M., Samper, P., Tur, A., and Armenta, B. (2011) The Longitudinal Relations among Dimensions of Parenting Styles, Sympathy, Pro-social Moral Reasoning, and Pro-social Behaviors, International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(2), 116-124.

Coley, R., Lewin-Bizan, S., and Carrano, J. (2011) Does Early Paternal Parenting Promote Low-Income Children’s Long-Term Cognitive Skills? Journal of Family Issues, 32 (11), 1522-1542.

Hoeve, M., Dubas, J., Gerris, J., van der Laan, K, and Smeenk, W. (2011) Maternal and Paternal Parenting Styles: Unique and Combined Links to Adolescent and Early Adult Delinquency, Journal of Adolescence, 34(5), 813-827.

Kiff, C., Lengua, L., and Zalewski, M. (2011) Nature and Nurturing: Parenting in the Context of Child Temperament, Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14(3), 251-301.

Lipscomb, S., Leve, L., Harold, G., Neiderhiser, J., Shaw, D., Ge, X., and Reiss, D. (2011) Trajectories of Parenting and Child Negative Emotionality during Infancy and Toddlerhood: A Longitudinal Analysis, Child Development, 82 (5), 1661-1675.

Lou, S., Shih, R., Liu, H., Guo, Y., and Tseng, K. (2010) The Influences of the Sixth Graders’ Parents’ Internet Literacy and Parenting Style on Internet Parenting, Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – TOJET, 9(4), 173-184.

McKinney, C., Milone, M., and Renk, K. (2011) Parenting and Late Adolescent Emotional Adjustment: Mediating Effects of Discipline and Gender, Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 42(4), 463-481.

O’Brien, H. (2010) The Intergenerational Transmission of Parenting Styles of Irish Immigrant Mothers, Journal of Family Social Work, 13(5), 395-409.

O’Donnell, E., Moreau, M., Cardemil, E., and Pollastri, A. (2010)  Inter-parental Conflict, Parenting, and Childhood Depression in a Diverse Urban Population: The Role of General Cognitive Style, Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39 (1), 12-22.

Vermeer, P. (2011) The Impact of Parental Religiosity on Parenting Goals and Parenting Style: A Dutch Perspective, Journal of Beliefs & Values, 32 (1), 69-84.

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