Question:

I need a Literature Review for my Dissertation. 

1.What is Feminism-How would you define it?
Find out the development of feminism and historical background.
2. The effects of Feminism on photography
3. representative elements of feminism and photographers how to display though their works.
4. case study-analysis photographers’ works
(1) Cindy Sherman (2)Laurie Simmons

Answer:

Feminism in Photography

 

Introduction

This literature review discusses aspects of feminism in photography with the aim of identifying research trends and dominant issues addressed by researchers. First, a definition of feminism is provided, with specific reference to the historical development of this movement. Secondly, the effects of feminism on photography are discussed. Thirdly, the literature review focuses on how various representative elements of feminism are displayed by photographers through their works. The last section dwells on a case study analysis of the works of two feminist photographers; namely Cindy Sherman and Laurie Simmons.

Definition of feminism

A fundamental problem in feminist discourse is the inability by scholars to reach consensus on the best definition of feminism. Many definitions have been suggested but none has been identified as being the most appropriate. Moreover, researchers have not arrived at a consensus on which definitions create the best understanding of the notion of feminism. Offen (1988) observes that without a unifying definition, there is no stable foundation on which to construct a theory of feminism.

One suggested definition is that feminism is a movement whose aim is to end sexist oppression. Feminism may also be defined as the advocacy of the rights of women with the view to achieve social, political, and economic equality to men. Feminism emphasizes on solidarity between women. However, critics of the vision of bringing about equality between men and women dismiss the equality-related definition, terming it too simplistic (Offen, 1988). The argument made here is that men themselves are not equals, particularly if one looks at the patriarchal, capitalist, and white supremacist class structure. It therefore seems unclear which men women would like to be equal to. Another major issue is on whether women share a common vision regarding the meaning of equality. The definition is also considered simplistic in the way it dismisses race and class as some of the factors that together with sexism influence the extent of exploitation, oppression, and discrimination against individuals.

In the American society, for instance, bourgeois white women with an interest in the rights of women tend to be satisfied with such simplistic definitions (Offen, 1988). This is perhaps because they rhetorically put them in the same category with oppressed women. Such privileged women would most likely be unwilling to dwell too much on issues of class and race privilege.

In contrast, women from poor, lower classes, particularly the women of color may not readily define feminism in terms of the facilitation of social equality between women and men. This is because their everyday lives are full of indicators of inequalities even among the women themselves. Moreover, such women appreciate the fact that they share in the pain of being oppressed with many men belonging to the same social groups.

In the US, many women remain skeptical about feminism simply because they do not clearly understand its meaning. Others, particularly from oppressed and exploited ethnic minorities, avoid using the term because they would not like to be seen to be in support of a racist movement. They perceive activities of feminism to revolve around issues such as lesbianism. Owing to their homophobic thoughts, they reject any form of association with a group that is pro-lesbian. For others, the main reason for shunning feminism is that their reluctance to be associated with a radical political movement.

In the context of such conceptual challenges, the term “feminism” appears to be devoid of clear significance, and the resulting multiplicity of definitions has led to the lack of practical meaningfulness. In most attempts to define the term, aspects of class are emphasized. Definitions with liberal origins also dominate, with emphasis being on the right of women to self-determination and freedom. One such definition is provided by Hooks (2010), who defines it as the struggle aimed at ending sexist oppression. In this view, its aim is to bring benefits to all groups of women, all races, and all classes of women. Its aim is not to put women in a position of more privilege than men.

As a movement of ending sexist oppression, feminism draws our attention to various systems of inter-relatedness of race, sex, and class oppression as well as domination. In this way, it compels humanity to address the social experiences and predicaments of women who are affected by sexist oppression. In this way, efforts are made to understand the women’s collective social status.

The historical background and the development of feminism

The best way to understand feminism is to explore the concept from a historical background. Such an approach creates a better understanding of the development of the movement. Upon an analysis of the historical development of feminism, feminist scholars agree that there are three “waves” of feminism. In each of these waves, the same feminist issues have been addressed at different times in history but in different perspectives (Hooks, 2010).

The first wave was characterized by the feminist movement throughout the nineteenth and the first part of the twentieth century, in which case focus was primarily on the suffrage movement. The second wave lasted between the 1960s and 1980s, and feminists mainly addressed issues of inequality of laws and cultural inequality. The third feminist wave lasted between the 1990s and the present time, and it continues to focus on the perceived failures encountered during the second wave.

However, Ferree (2000) observes that some authors are opposed to an analysis of the history of feminism that focuses only on modern feminist movements. This approach is seen to ignore the fact that women have been expressing opposition to patriarchy for more than a thousand years. Moreover, the ideals that are recognized today as feminist started being espoused in the enlightenment values of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Nevertheless, the three waves of feminist movement are credited with leading to the emergence of the contemporary feminist theory. This feminist theory is manifested in various disciplines, chiefly feminist history, feminist geography, and feminist literary criticism.

During the first-wave feminism, which thrived throughout the nineteenth as well as the first part of the twentieth century in the US and the UK, focus was primarily on achievement of women’s suffrage. Women fought for their right to vote during political elections. The coinage of the concept of “first-wave” occurred after the second wave was already underway. The aim of this move was to differentiate the newer feminist movement from the earlier version. In the second-wave, feminists were engaged in efforts to fight socio-cultural inequalities as well other aspects of political inequalities.

In Britain, the advocacy work of Suffragettes contributed greatly to the achievement of the women’s vote, particularly between 1918 and 1928. In the US, feminists first advocated for the abolition of slave trade before shifting their efforts to the fight for the women’s vote. Many women belonging to conservative Christian groups participated in the first-wave feminism. In contrast, the second-wave attracted diverse radical women groups, some of whom originated from outside the religious fold. The first-wave feminism in the US ended when the Nineteenth Amendment was passed, which granted voting rights to the American women.

During the more radical second-wave feminism, which lasted between the early 1960s and the late 1980s, links were established between political and cultural inequalities. During this time, women were encouraged to appreciate the far-reaching extent of politicization of many aspects of their personal lives. This deep politicization of personal life was considered a reflection of the sexist structure of political power. Within this understanding, the feminists advocated for an end to discrimination.

Some sources in literature point out that the second-wave feminism has continued to exist alongside the third-wave feminism (Amos, 1984; Ferree, 2000). This may be true given that the third-wave feminism, which started during the early 1990s, arose in response to the failures perceived in the second wave. The movements and initiatives started during the second wave triggered a backlash, which the third wave continues to address. In this latest wave, efforts are being made to avoid the “essentialist” approaches used to define feminism (Nash, 2001). The  main problem with such approaches is that they put too much emphasis on the experiences of the upper middle class women especially the whites.

Much of the ideology of the third wave feminism interprets gender and sexuality from a post-structuralist perspective (Nash, 2001). The main area of disagreement with second wave feminists was on what is good for females and what is not. In the third wave, concerns that were assumed to have been resolved during the second wave such as sexual harassment were reinstated. In this process, many feminists have been advocating for a new sense of subjectivity with respect to the feminist voice. Moreover, the intersection between gender and race remains a crucial area of the feminist debate in the present time. Many feminists have particularly been campaigning for many voters in marginalized poor communities to be registered as voters in order to exercise their civic right by participating in the democratic process.

The effects of Feminism on photography

Feminism has influenced photography in numerous ways. Concepts such as feminist art and post-modern feminist art are normally used to highlight the magnitude of this influence. The post-modern feminist art boomed during the 1950s. Since then, it has continued to invigorate feminist photography. Moreover, it has continued to highlight the interaction between feminism and postmodern thoughts. For instance, through postmodern feminist art, the traditional system that emphasizes on a “grand theory” has been questioned (Nash, 2001). It has also contributed to the blurring of the distinction between various sexes. Furthermore, this form of art has led to the construction of a predominantly feminist discourse system.

One of the most significant contributions of photography on feminism is the emergence of changes in the representations of women. These changes occurred mainly during the second half of the twentieth century. One of the most significant feminist art movements in recent times was started in the early 1960s. This art movement coincided with the second wave feminism. Various factors contributed to the emergence of this form of art. First, the traditional trend was characterized by the depiction of women as subjects of art that was produced predominantly by male artists. The photography produced in this way depicted women as the ideal feminine figures. Women were also being sexualized as objects of desire through photography.

The dominant idea perpetuated by male photographers was typically that of a woman staring seductively at her audience. The only identity accorded to the woman is that of an object of desire by the intended male audience. This approach was being perpetuated as early as during the sixteenth century. In the present time, such ideas continue to be perpetuated. However, during the 1960s, post-modern feminist photographers made remarkable strides by using photography to communicate their displeasure at being tirelessly depicted merely as sexual objects. The feminist photographers declared that they were tired of being misrepresented as objects of male desire.

However, the feminist photographers had to encounter numerous challenges. One of them was the tendency to be overlooked and being denied the attention worthy of serious artists. In response, the feminist photographers revolted by coming up with a form of art that was too shocking to be ignored. Bold feminist works emerged, and women photographers were keen to use their new-found freedom to rebel against all the constraints imposed on them by tradition and the patriarchal society.

Since the 1960s, female photographers started depicting the female body in such a way that the prevailing social construction of gender was powerfully challenged. The feminist art movement entailed much more than just challenging the perception of women as artists as well as subjects in photography. It was also about women who were ready to confront the subordinate roles that had been conferred upon them by society. Photography was one of the platforms that feminists used to rebel and determinedly promote their ideas (Nash, 2001).

In the decades that led up to the feminist art movement, many socio-political changes had started taking place. The number of women joining the workforce had started increasing. Moreover, these women were demanding equal pay with men for equal work. The civil rights act was extended to cover the rights of women. Women’s right to contraceptives was also introduced during the 1960s. It is important for such a context to be provided to explain the difficulties encountered in addressing various aspects of feminist photography.

One major difficulty is on defining the precise meaning of feminist art. In some areas, feminist art is understood to mean art that has been created by women. In other areas, it is taken to mean any form of art that explicitly displays anti-male sentiment. Feminist artists gained a major boost at a time when many achievements were being made in women’s reproductive and employment rights.

Historically, nude figures constituted one of the favorite subjects for artists. Sometimes, artists were given access to nude models in order to arrive at a realistic likeness. Whereas men had access to both female and male models, women had access to neither (Hooks, 2010). Additionally, women were locked out of formal learning exhibitions. This created a situation where almost all the art produced was attributed to men. Given the lack of artistic opportunities, women could not achieve the respect that was accorded to male artists. In fact, their art was conventionally looked down as inferior. In fact, women were expected to pursue art only as a hobby.

However, the emergence of the feminist art movement came at a time when an increasingly large number of female artists had access to formal art academies just like their male counterparts. For such women, the objective was to confront the serious challenges that women faced as well as the representation of women in photography. For the most part, feminist photography stirred controversy. This was because of the fact that they deviated from tradition. Some of artwork even mocked works that had historically been regarded as artistic masterpieces.

For example, in Philip Golub Reclining (1971), Sylvia Sleigh created a work of art that closely resembled Rokeby Venus (1947) (Anthias, 1983). In this work, Sleigh played the role of a male painter, with the subject being a woman (Anthias, 1983). However, the reclining nude was male. Sleigh also drew a mirror reflection, which showed both the man’s face and the female figure looking on as the artist painted him (Anthias, 1983).

In the mainstream, male-dominated art, real women were captured through various photography works. Members of the feminist art movement used this to the advantage of the movement. The feminist artists simply highlighted these works and turned them into illustrated biographies addressing the issues that continue to affect every woman.

Through photography, women managed to represent themselves more effectively than in all other platforms. The feminists seized the opportunity provided by photography to deconstruct the male gaze and bring disturbing private moments out in the open for everyone to see. In fact, the notion of “photography” was in itself a deviation from tradition. Traditionally, the term “artist” was considered a synonym of “painter”. In feminist photography, new ways were used to turn artists into subjects in completely new ways.

In all earlier paintings, men presented bodies on the basis of unnatural ideals. In contrast, photography portrayed an aspect of truth. They defied things that were considered ideal. The imagery portrayed in photography tended to reflect societal changes. During the 1970s, some feminists confidently came up with photographic self-portraits, in which they showed their less-than-perfect bodies. They would not shy away from portraying their aging bodies, facial wrinkles, and tired eyes (Hooks, 2010). The resulting work of photography captured the essence of the contemporary mother and working woman. Hooks (2010) indicates that the main objective for feminists was to present the actual appearance of women.

Unlike traditional paintings, the photography produced within the realm of the feminist art movement could easily capture crucial moments in the lives of women that would have otherwise been ignored. Familiar images were used highlight the way women are portrayed by society. The feminists used images that had for a long time been accepted as normal, particularly in the popular culture.

According to Hooks (2010), the main backlash for these feminists was triggered by the perception that their works of art were a threat to tradition. Their photography was attacked for challenging the traditional view of women. The main social issues that these feminist photographers confronted include gender, identity, and stereotyping of the role of women in society.

The case study of Cindy Sherman’s photography

            The photography of Cindy Sherman has for a long time drawn the world’s attention to the way women are exhibited in society. Although Sherman does not associate herself with the feminist agenda, her work has succeeded in highlighting the various gender stereotypes that have robbed women of their identity. In Untitled Film Series (1977), for instance, the images that Sherman uses make it difficult to tell who exactly she is (Grundberg, 1990). This is because the photography portrays different women playing different roles, with each role being a representation of a stereotype.

In one image, Sherman presents to the world a young nude blonde lying in a bed staring blankly at the wall. The image portrays Sherman as a vulnerable woman. Another image portrays the same person wearing a professional suit, with skyscrapers clearly visible in the background. For Sherman, the objective for creating these radically different photographs is to demonstrate that the familiar images that we see form the foundation of the identity associated with women. Sherman uses herself as the subject of the photos, and in this way she is able to create sixty nine unique personas (Grundberg, 1990). Through these multiple identities, it is evident that a woman’s identity can easily be obscured behind socially constructed clichés (Grundberg,1990).

All the characters portrayed by Sherman appear to be in a state of quiet reflection. This way, the photographer goes beyond the barrier of clichés by presenting her subjects as thinking beings. The objective is to make viewers instantaneously recognize the fictitious characters. Whenever this happens, the viewers are reminded that the socially constructed identities are deeply ingrained in their subconscious.

However, some critics argued that Sherman’s Untitled Film Series (1977) perpetuated female stereotypes instead of making a feminist statement (Nash, 2001). In subsequent works, Sherman endeavored to make bolder feminine statements. A case in point is that of Centerfolds, an art work comprising of twelve self-portraits; each of the portraits was an extremely close-up photograph, in which Sherman sought to question the male gaze (Nash, 2001).

In many of her photographs, Sherman has endeavored to challenge the way women are depicted in the modern society. For instance,  one may need to look back at historical paintings in History Portraits (1989-90) (Grundberg, 1990). In this work, she portrays some of the most renowned personalities in the history of art. Her intent is to mimic these portraits and not to duplicate their works (Nash, 2001). However, her objective as far as the feminist agenda is concerned remains unclear (Nash,2001). Those critics who take into consideration her dissociation from feminist suggest that her aim is to illustrate how art continues to change (Qualls, 1995).  Other critics such as Hooks (2010) argue that Sherman intended to attack the traditional ways of depicting women.

The case study of Laurie Simmons’ photography

Laurie Simmons is a renowned New York photographer, famous for her unique ability to craft images in both uncanny and familiar ways (Grundberg, 1990). For many years, Laurie Simmons has been exploring themes relating to the domestic life of women. Her first series comprised of black-and-white photos taken during the late 1970s. Initially, Simmons intended to be a commercial photographer specializing in children’s toys. However, after some time, Simmons realized that it was possible for her to use small items to investigate and dramatize both the ordinary realities and dark secrets that lie beneath the seemingly-perfect image of domestic life. This inspired her to start staging funny, playful, and touching photos.

Simmons’ photography belongs to the postmodern feminist art movement. In this context, the photographs expose the numerous ways in which the media continues to shape mankind’s collective memory. A good example is a photograph of a doll that seems lost in revenue on top of the kitchen table (Grundberg, 1990). The same portrayal is conveyed in Simmons’ photograph of a doll that is seated rigid in the dining chair (Grundberg, 1990).

According to Leffler (2005), the core aim of the first three series of Simmons’ work was to question patriarchal capitalism. In works such as The Black Series, and Interiors, Simmons was keen to unmask the American society and portray it as place of power that has made in such a way as to appear to be of illusionary nature (Leffler, 2005).  The photographs also create the impression that patriarchy, the contemporary consumer society, and capitalism have come to exist at the same time; in Simmons’ view, they are inseparable.

Using mock homes made of dolls, Simmons portrays crucial aspects of feminism. Through the so-called dollhouse photographs, she endeavors to betray the patriarchal structure of the contemporary society as well as all the hierarchies it has traditionally sustained (Kimmelman, 2001). In Simmons’ understanding of the subject of feminism, there is a strong connection with notions of family (Simmons, 1987). It is important to note that she grew up in a gendered suburban family, and  found it imperative to resist the traditional construct of the typical American family.

Through her doll-based photography, Simmons demonstrated her belief that the biological family should exist organically, that is, in nature (Leffler, 2005). For reproduction to take place, both male and female participation is needed. However, as Simmons’ noted, it was unfortunate that the organic family always bowed to the cultural environment of capitalist patriarchy, where men sought to control women in the process of accumulating wealth. Simmons argues that since the wealth obtained was used predominantly for exchange and not use, women always got a poor bargain.

Conclusion

In conclusion, feminism may be defined as a movement whose aim is to bring sexing oppression to an end. However, there is an ongoing debate regarding the best way of defining feminism. In modern times, feminism developed three waves, with the first wave lasting between the nineteenth century and the first part of the twentieth century. In this case, focus was on the suffrage movement. In the second wave, which lasted between the 1960s and 1980s, and feminists mainly addressed issues of inequality of laws and cultural inequality. The third feminist has lasted between 1990s and the present time, and it continues to focus on the perceived failures of the second wave.

Cindy Sherman and Laurie Simmons  did their photography work during the third-wave feminism. The works belong to the post-modern feminist art movement. Although Sherman has been dissociating herself from the feminist course, her photography has achieved the goal of highlighting the various gender stereotypes that have traditionally put women in a situation where they have no single identity. For Laurie Simmons, the objective was to use photography to present the reality of the domestic life of women and to use this image to oppose patriarchal capitalism.

References

Amos, V. (1984). Challenging Imperial Feminism. Feminist Review, 17(3), 3-19.

Anthias, F. (1983). Contextualizing Feminism: Gender, Ethnic and Class Divisions. Feminist Review, 4(15), 62-75.

Ferree, M. (2000). Global Feminism: Transnational Women’s Activism, Organizing, and Human Rights. New York: Columbia University Press.

Grundberg, A. (1990). Crisis of the real: Writings on photography, 1974-1989. New York: Aperture.

Hooks, B. (2010). Feminism: A movement to end sexist oppression. New York: MacMillan Palgrave.

Kimmelman, M. (2001).  Art in review; Laurie Simmons: Photographs 1978-79: ‘Interiors’ and ‘big figures’. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Leffler, L. (2005). Life in the Dollhouse: Laurie Simmons’s Early Work as a Display of Constructed Hierarchies. London: Macmillan.

Nash, R. (2001). Follies and Falsities: Architectural Photography. PAJ, 23(2), 71-74.

Offen, K. (1988). Defining Feminism: A Comparative Historical Approach. Signs, 14(1), 119-157.

Qualls, L. (1995). Performance/ Photography. Performing Arts Journal, 17(1), 26-34.

Simmons, L. (1987). Water ballet/ family collision. London: Heinemann.