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Summary: Pages: 20 Array Style: APA Client country: Australia (UK English) 3 days 9 hours | Assignment extract: Current issues in second language learning This unit deals with the following aspects/issues: • Linguistic issues in TESOL/LOTE; • Linguistic awareness; • Learning styles/ strategies in TESOL • Constructivism in language teaching and earning • Teaching and learning resources in TESOL • Language maintenance • English in a world context; • TESOL in a multicultural society; • Language, identity and culture; • Assessing language competence • Critical theory perspective in TESOL/LOTE. • The role of IT in TESOL • Reflective learning • The role of humour in language teaching and learning. Note: You donʹt need to cover all the contents mentioned for each unit, they are there to give you some ideas about the units and of course there is some overlapping of contents among units. SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR ASSIGNMENTS You may want to choose the following suggested topics for your assignments (please note that topics suggested in other TESOL units can be chosen too as there are overlapping topics and issues: TOPICS: • Learning language and learning about language • A good teacher is a good communicator. • A critical discussion of a TESOL test instrument (eg. TOEFL, IELTS) • Some problems of testing English as a second language. • What does a test and does not tell us? • Some cultural issues in testing English as a second language. • E‐learning in TESOL • Communicative strategies • Improving communication and learning via the Internet • The Internet as a communicative discourse. • Knowledge of English grammar in learning English as a second language • Knowledge of English grammar in teaching English as a second language. • Learning English as a second language in young children. • Learning English as a second language in adulthood. • Language maintenance in Hong Kong/India/Singapore • Linguistic imperialism • Teaching English and interfering with learnersʹ cultures. • The use of humour in language teaching (e,g, jokes, riddles ) • Native English‐speaking teachers and nonnative English speaking teachers • Speaking with an accent • Cultural influence on learning styles of Chinese students (or Korean, Vietnamese, Polish, Indonesian etc). • What is a good teacher from the Korean perspective? (or Chinese, Italian, Laotian etc) • Teacher as a facilitator and teacher as a knowledge transmitter • Gender issues in language learning in Korea (or France, Cambodia, China etc.) • The role of English in Singapore ( or India, Hong Kong, Vietnam etc.) • Teacher‐made tests • Journal writing in teaching and learning |
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Contents
Some problems of testing English as a second language. 2
Learning language and learning about language. 4
Learning English as a second language in young children. 6
Learning English as a second language in adulthood. 9
The Internet as a communicative discourse. 12
Native English‐speaking teachers (NEST) and nonnative English speaking teachers (Non-NEST). 19
Knowledge of English grammar in learning English as a second language. 21
Some problems of testing English as a second language
Testing English as a second language always presents English teachers with many challenges. The problems often vary from selection of English students as well as measurement of aptitude, proficiency and achievement. In all these activities, teachers have to make many decisions for which in most cases there are no clear answers. However, with the right methodological approaches, the problems encountered during testing of English as a second language can be solved.
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Psychometric tests have now become widely used tools for educational measurement. They can be applied in English testing just as they are used in assessing achievement in other areas of knowledge. However, there are some special difficulties that always stick out whenever one is learning English as a second language. Educational researchers have not been doing much in the area of systematically and accurately measuring second language ability. Although languages are increasingly become important in all curriculums, there is scarcity of books that that specifically deal with core second language testing concepts(Clarke, 2000).
Most appropriate journals that are easy to find today are those that try to justify or reject different techniques instead of exploring ways through which refinement can be done on tried testing procedures in order to make them more relevant. Justice has not been done to English as a second language either. The main reason could be that this is one of the most studied language and which people acquire for very practical reasons. The effectiveness of English tests has become a very important issue and institutions are increasingly assessing ways through which tests can be standardized.
In any field of education, testing presents challenges that easily degenerate into controversy. However, if adequate focus is given to a good test, a good evaluation of the effectiveness of the learning methods that were used will be arrived at. In general terms, perhaps the trickiest problem when a second language is being tested is that this language is often a means of communication as well as an object of assessment. This means that the teacher has to use language in order to measure one’s ability to use the language.
Methodologically, the biggest problem in testing English as a second language is assessing whether the tests chosen will accurately elicit English performance which is characteristic of the performance of the learner in non-test performance situations. In other words, this entails ability to measure the extent to which the learner can make ‘authentic’ use of language. This problem has led to the coinage and evolution of terms such as ‘pragmatic’ and ‘functional’ use of language. These terms simply mean use of language in natural communicative contexts.
Many teachers have sought to solve testing problems by using testing as a teaching strategy. According to these teachers, testing as a learning strategy enables them to maintain a constructive and practical communicative context through which many opportunities for discussing different opportunities for language use arise.
Learning language and learning about language
Differences are often made between learning a language and learning about a language (Christie, 1989). Linguists are always interested in how language is acquired as well as how it is used for practical, communicative contexts. In most cases, one learns a language with a view to use it in natural communicative contexts. When learning a language, it is not a must that one consciously understands the grammatical rules governing it. For instance, a native English language speaker does not have to consciously learn all the rules of English grammar in order to speak it properly. The grammar is acquired unconsciously, courtesy of the innate capabilities of the human brain, what linguists call the language faculty. In this case, one is said to be learning a language. In the case of second language learning contexts, one has to consciously learn and understand the rules of the language’s grammar. In this case, one is said to be learning about the language.
The concepts of nature and nurture are used to differentiate two different language learning contexts for purposes of proper understanding among linguists. The nature approach is whereby one learns language in a natural context. A classical example of nature at work in the language learning process is child language acquisition. This approach entails exposure to contexts of language use in communicative contexts, usually by first language speakers of the target language. Nurture refers to the classroom approach to the language learning. In this case, one learns about language by getting exposure to its grammar, syntax and semantics. To be able to use it in natural contexts, natural language usages have to be simulated.
Another approach taken in understanding the difference between learning a language and learning about a language is the approach taken in the learning process. Linguists study language in a way that is different from non-linguists. Linguists are only interested in the internal structure of a language. They are also interested in understanding the dynamics of language use. In their analysis, they use what is known as metalanguage, a cache of terminologies that makes thetask of describing and analyzing language easy.
Communicative strategies
Communicative strategies are considered by linguists to be manifestations of cognitive processes that language learners use in order to use language more effectively in communicative contexts. Communicative strategies enable second language students communicate well despite language handicap caused by lack of adequate acquisition of the target language. Some commonly used communicative strategies include repetition, use of vague language, circumlocution, pauses and overuse of private speech.
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Communicative strategies are an important part of language acquisition since they make the learner gain confidence in putting whatever little he has learned in the language class into practice. Through longitudinal analysis of different communicative strategies, Francisco, 2005, observed that with time, learners were able to obtain a more enhanced control of any language without having to improve linguistic aspects such as complex syntax, vocabulary and morphology.
The implication of Francisco’s findings is that it is very possible that a student will seem as though he has reached a plateau in the process of acquiring a language merely because he has discontinued the use of new vocabulary, or that they continue making grammatical errors relating to such aspects like subject-verb agreement. However, such a student will have gained a very impressive control of those aspects of the language that they have already understood. These aspects comprise what in linguistic terms is known as interlanguage. The impressive control manifests itself through fewer pauses as one tries to put thoughts, vocabulary and grammatical together, limited paraphrasing and reduced instances of self-corrections.
Absence of communicative strategies presents a completely different scenario, whereby a learner learns just about everything to do with a second language but continues to feel that he is insecure because of minimal control of the language in communicative contexts. This scenario represents a case of lack of communicative strategies. The result of this is overuse of pauses, self-doubts and too many self-corrections. This raises the important matter of what it entails to have acquired a second language. As far as communicative strategies indicate, the cognitive aspects of language acquisition are very essential if one is to grasp a holistic linguistic competence.
Learning English as a second language in young children
The need for young children to learn a second language arises out of different circumstances. In most cases, parents of these children are not available to speak the first language. This forces them to learn to use a second language in order to be able to communicate with the people around them. According to research carried out by Clarke 1996, Tabors 1997, four factors (social, aptitude, psychological and environmental) determine the approach children take as well as how they interact with other people when they are learning a second language.
Different children find themselves in different communicative contexts owing to differences in personality; some children are outgoing while others are reserved. Some children like taking risks while others don’t. In terms of aptitude, different children are endowed with different capabilities of acquiring a second language in terms of ability to understand finite rules of the language and to use them to make an infinite set of sentences.
The cognitive disposition of a child determines his ability to gain self-motivation in the second language acquisition process. This is a psychological factor that is intertwined with personality, and by extension, the ability to take risks all the time and develop a positive approach in the language learning process.Environmental factors refer to the learning situations, available learning resources, external sources of motivation and availability of instructors.
Identity and wellbeing determine the second language acquisition success obtained by children. Positive self esteem should be inculcated in the child before any language learning process is embarked on. This is very important especially in very strange environments. Incidentally, the need to acquire a second language among children arises out of situations that require drastic social, cultural, ethnic, racial and class adjustments. These adjustments might disorient the child, interfering with his self esteem in the face of a very strange environment that all of a sudden requires him to acquire a new language. The bottom line is that a child should be helped know who he is before he embarks on learning a new language.
Emotional security is largely determined by a strong sense of identity. Children who find themselves with the need to acquire a second language are at high risk of perceiving a sense of rejection by the speakers of the target language especially when there is no common language that makes it easy for the language barrier to be broken. If this happens, the child will operate on a lower cognitive level, something that negatively interferes with the language learning process (Siraj-Blatchford and Clarke 2000).
The task of familiarizing children with their new learning environment is a very daunting one but it is also one that is very important. Multilingual staffs often recommend that parents brief their children about the new environment in order to prepare them psychologically. The parents’ perspectives about the learning approaches taken by the children need to be known to multilingual staff that should then try and reconcile their own approaches with those of the parents of these children.
The stages that children go through while learning a second language are not very different from the ones that adult second language learners go through. Clarke, 1996 observes that in children, the stages follow each other in an ordered sequence; that it is only after one stage is complete that the next one can be embarked on. Progress in subsequent stages depends on the linguistic knowledge acquired in previous stages. A keen observation of a child’s use of a certain language form will enable a linguist to differentiate between newly learnt structures from structures that the child learnt in prior phases and which he has been using previously.Success in a certain phase in the process of acquiring a second language by a child is said to have been achieved when the learner is able to use the same structure in different communicative contexts.
Learning a language is a very complicated process in which knowledge of grammar is only one part. Other than being able to describe, write down and use rules of a language to construct sentences, there is an ultimate challenge, that of managing social interactions using the newly acquired language. One has to be innovative in order to find new uses of the language through attracting the attention of listeners, developing positive attitudes and getting along with native speakers of the language with ease.
Learning English as a second language in adulthood
Language learning strategies are conscious behaviors that learners employ in order to enhance the speed and effectiveness with which they acquire a target language. Different adult learners use different strategies in order to learn a second language. An introverted learner is more likely to use drill as well as sentence and vocabulary analysis in order to acquire a new language. In sharp contrast, extroverted learners seem to be more at ease finding meaning of words from social settings without crosschecking these meanings with what is contained in books.
While some people are very comfortable with a step-by-step process of learning language, others find this strategy to be boring and tedious. They prefer use of intuition in order to make as many responses as possible, naturally. Where all senses are involved, learning is seen to take place more effectively Clarke, 2006.
The learning style that an adult is exposed to determines the learning strategies that are chosen (Oxford &Ehrman, 1988). Additionally, both styles and the strategies adopted have a profound influence on the learning resources that are made available to the learner. A learning style encompasses many other things in addition to cognitive style; it also entails the manner in which the learner pays attention to different aspects of language learning.
Chapelle& Roberts, 1986, identify the aspect of field dependence vs. field independence as of the dimensions taken in coming up with a language learning style. Adult learners who are field independent find it easy to separate crucial details from a background that is highly complex and therefore confusing. On the other hand, field dependent adult learners have difficulties doing this. Where analytical tasks have to be handled, field independent learners seem to have a clear advantage over field dependent learners.
Analytical processing vs. global processing constitutes another approach used to define learning strategies among adults. The concept of brain hemisperity has been used to explain how analytical language processing compares with global language processing and how these two aspects impact on the learning strategies that adult learners use.
Although there is scanty research on analytical and global language processing, the concept of hemispherity has been very helpful to applied linguists. In this approach, the brain’s left hemisphere handles matters of language though abstraction and analysis while in the right hemisphere, language is dealt with through global visual and auditory patterns (Willing, 1988). Against this backdrop, speculation is made to the effect that right-brain language learners (those who are in favor of processing tasks done in the right hemisphere of the brain) succeed more in learning rhythms and intonations of the target language. On the other hand, left-brain learners are expected to be able to easily deal with all analytical issues such as grammar and syntax.
It is difficult to discuss the strategy issues in second language acquisition among adults without the issue of cooperation vs. competition cropping up. In many cases, learners rarely employ cooperative strategies when they are learning language in the classroom setting. Instead, students use competition strategies. The desire to learn more and more aspects arises from the need to pass tests and hence be ranked highly in the classroom setting.
In cases where learners are taught to employ cooperation strategies, improvement in language skills are recorded since the learners are encouraged to use language in practical communicative contexts. Increased language proficiency comes with positive attitudes, motivation and self esteem. All these attributes are very important in the early stages of second language learning.
Another dimension of style in language learning is tolerance for ambiguity. For adults, the task of learning a language can be very challenging owing to the fact that the human brain loses elasticity as we age. Loss of elasticity means inability to accommodate new languages. For adult learners, a style that emphasizes reduction of this ambiguity is very important and is sure to lead to optimal language performance.
Myers &McCaulley, 1985 propose four more dimensions that determine the learning style that adults choose, thus: sensing vs. intuition, extroversion vs. introversion, judging vs. perceiving and thinking vs. feeling. Of course, each of these dimensions influences the extent of success in second language acquisition among adults in different ways. Other aspects of style that relate to acquisition of a second language by adults include constricted-reflexive thinking, reflexivity-impulsivity and sharpening-leveling of detail. All these aspects relate to stylistic matters that determine the extent to which adults are motivated to pursue the task of learning a new language.
The main areas of focus when second language learning strategies are being conceived include recall, use of every new information that becomes available in the learning process, storage of important knowledge as well as its retention for ease of reference. It is important for adults to keep assessing second language learning strategies for effectiveness. The most obvious way of doing this is through tests. Other ways of evaluation include observations; think-aloud procedures and surveys.
Success in second language acquisition arises from ability to use strategies that are suited to the level of learning that you are in, your learning needs, available learning resources, the tasks at hand and the goals to be achieved. In order to determine the strategies that are most helpful in ones learning situations, focus should be on ways through which new information can be linked up with all other information that is already available in a schemata. In this regard, Oxford, 1990, suggests use of cognitive, memory and compensation strategies.
The Internet as a communicative discourse
The internet is becoming a more and more important part of our society. All world cultures are coming together and converging on the cyberspace. This has given rise into the concept of computer-mediated communication (CMC). The concept of CMC alludes to a novel culture that Jones, 1995 refers to as “cybersociety”. People who are uninitiated into this society always feel uncomfortable while venturing into it. This is a serious problem that should be addressed if the internet is to become an effective channel for communicative discourse.
People who are used to aspects of computer mediated communication such as e-mail, chat, World Wide Web, multiple user domains, video conferencing and other platforms claim that this type of communication has reconfigured all traditional patterns of human social interactions. Some people assert that CMC will ultimately revolutionize human social life and completely sever links between it and offline relationships.
Fear of venturing into the cybersociety among the uninitiated is just but one of the many problems associated with internet discourse. In addition, it is feared that cyber propaganda threats to tear apart the credibility of the internet as a source of information. However, going by the revolutionary nature of the internet, as evident through analyses of its short history, everyone who uses it cannot help being optimistic that tomorrow’s information technology has the ability to provide solutions to the problems created by the information technology of today.
Communication experts are in agreement that the development of computer technology is just one of the many ways through which man has been endeavoring to improve communication. George, (1995) says that the changes that have been taking place in the course of history are chronological and that they are mutually exclusive. However, in the western world, indications are often given to the contrary. Here, the cultural changes relating to print, written and oral technology are often perceived to have followed a path that coincides with sequential historical changes in communication. This contention presents challenges in terms of prediction of future communication changes that will take place in developing world in this highly dynamic information age.
Although the internet continues to be a goldmine of important information, those people who are not used to using it still have problems participating on a level playground with their experienced counterparts. A good example of communicative discourses that flourish on the internet is academic research. Although it is easy for experienced internet users to access authentic information, less experienced users often end up using information that is not authentic. This puts them at a disadvantage as far as utilization of internet communication resources is concerned.
The internet presents an ideal environment for literacy practice all over the world. The new communicative situations created by the internet present learning opportunities for people with interest in acquiring a second language. Internet discourse mainly centers on matters of conceptualization, theorization and analysis, Schneider & Foot, 2004. In literacy studies and linguistics, many publications have been produced in the past one decade, which attempt to explore the meaning and implications of what Street, 2000 calls “a new communicative order”.
More interestingly, the internet has made it possible for systematic research to be carried out, a good example being issues of English for internet communication Crystal, 2001. This has resulted in increased interest in research relating to study of English, both as a second language and as a first language. Another way of looking at communicative discourse on the internet is considering the manner in which it acts as a contact zone, where local comes into contact with global. In this case, the course of internet communication discourse changes such that issues of local cultures, languages and their relationships with English take center stage.
The internet has also changed the way second language acquisition issues are articulated. For instance, the concept of English as a global language has been reinforced. It seems more and more people all over the world feel the need to learn it on top of all the other languages they may already be proficient in so as to be able to participate more proactively on the cybersociety.
Everyone who studies the English language for use on the internet has to learn it in a multicultural context. In any case, one has to learn the language in an environment that is either synchronous or synchronous with the local cultural fabric. In most cases, such environments are informal and therefore very flexible. The main source of motivation is the need to belong to the cybersociety. Learners therefore employ integrative approaches that entail use of internet register. As one would expect, many such registers have been seen to facilitate intermingling of different language forms, resulting in hybrid language varieties.
The informality of the language acquisition environment provided on the internet threatens to discredit the traditional learning settings through creation of restructured avenues through which social and discourse participation presents ESL students with endless opportunities where language use and practice is freed from the traditional constraints associated with the classroom setting.
The internet remains a good environment for fosteringlanguage learning environments that are better than what the classroom setting provides. However, there is need for the resulting pedagogic effects to be assessed carefully. A good example is a situation where a student encounters analogies that apply both to the internet and in the classroom. In such a case, the learner might be tempted to give preference to the internet situation which is more ‘accessible’ Bernstein’s (1996). In this case, the learner is forced by technology to recontextualize the situation. In the traditional classroom setting, the student would have use co-operation and competitive strategies in order to improve his ability to use the language in local, offline settings.
As recent research indicates, incorporating the internet communicative discourse into L2 learning is not as easy as it seems (Kramsch& Thorne, 2002). This development is worth investigating further considering the optimism with which many people approach internet-based language learning and language socialization issues.
The main challenge that is presented by the seemingly less stifling internet-based language learning and socialization discourse relates to the new forms of literacy that it introduces. Barnes, 2000, talks about technological determinism in a negative light, citing the optimism that was there 20 years ago when word processors were introduced into the technological world. It was hoped that as a result of this, many improvement in literacy would be realized, yet little, if any progress in terms of language literacy seems to have been realized (Christie, 1989).
Linguistic imperialism
Linguistic imperialism is a theory that has attracted the attention of many scholars in both English and applied linguistics since its conception in the 1990s. The publication of Linguistic Imperialism, an influential book by Robert Philipson resulted in disputes on the merits and demerits of the theory. Today, linguists have taken to discussing linguistic imperialism in relation to cultural imperialism.
Linguistic imperialism was defined by as the dominance that is asserted and properly maintained through establishment as well as continuous reconstitution of cultural and structural inequalities that exist between the English language and all other languages. Philipson’s theory provided a very powerful critique relating to how English spread historically in countries like Zimbabwe, Uganda, Pakistan, Kenya, Pakistan and Nigeria. It also highlights the manner in which the language continues to maintain dominance in the postcolonial era in all these countries. The book also highlighted issues of English language dominance throughout Europe.
English has many underlying tenets that make many analysts observe imperialistic tendencies. To begin with, it is highly subject to the monolingual fallacy which gives rise to the claim that first, it can only be taught best in monolingual contexts alone, secondly, that a native speaker is the ideal English teacher, thirdly, that the earlier you start learning English, the better the results will be, fourthly, that the more you learn English lessons, the better your results will be and lastly, that if other languages continue to be used too much, English standards are going to fall dramatically.
The other arguments that are used to place English on top of other languages on the importance scale are of economic and ideological nature. One claim that is often made is that it is best positioned to bring about economic productivity since it makes it easy for people to handle technology. Additionally, it is presumed to stand for modernity as well as represent material advancement and progress.
Another important issue addressed in Philipson’s book is about ‘linguicism’ a process through which languages that are endangered end up becoming extinct or losing local eminence largely due to growing competition with English in global contexts. In terms of internationalization, English continues to conquer new usage horizons all over the world. In this case, some native English speakers fail to accept the reality of the fact that change is a natural process for all languages. Instead, they assert that English changes when use in ‘foreign’ contexts in order to bring about new possibilitiesMcCabe, 1985.
The talk about linguistic imperialism is far from absurd. For instance, the annoyance in the way English has started finding its way into Japan is not farfetched. When English finally takes over as the language of doing business in this country that holds the second position globally economically, parents in Japan might stop teaching their children Japanese, insisting on English instead.
Today, the discussion on linguistic imperialism is far from over. Many questions relating to the future of linguistic identity in the face of a world that is increasingly being exposed to English remain unanswered. Suggestions are sometimes put forth that EFL (English as a Foreign Language) teachers should introduce cultural elements into their lessons but linguistic imperialists are always opposed to this.
The greatest linguistic imperialism controversy comes from the view of English as a genuine lingua franca on the one hand and that of English as a predatory language that is always on the path of killing linguistic diversity on the other. For some people, it is the best tool of eradicating communication barriers in cosmopolitan societies. For others, it is a sign of an impending condition of total domination. Gladdol, 2006 estimates that a third of the world population will be learning English by 2015.
Today, people all over the world are motivated to learn new languages because of the usefulness of the competence acquired in terms of ability to reach out for opportunities (Van Parijis, 2009). This is one of the propositions that Van Parijis puts forth to describe the continued existence of linguistic imperialism. The second one is that motivation to learn a new language comes from the need to be proficient in a lingua franca that majority of any section of the global population belongs to. As long as there is motivation for learning of English, it seems that the language will continue spreading to many other parts of the world, perhaps giving credence to claims made by linguistic imperialism theorists that the imperialistic tendencies are here to stay.
Native English‐speaking teachers (NEST) and nonnative English speaking teachers (Non-NEST)
A common stereotype that is often perpetuated on imperialist grounds is that a native speaker of a language is the most suitably equipped person for teaching the language. A comparison between Native English‐speaking teachers and nonnative English speaking teachers is therefore very necessary if the stereotype is to be objectivelyassessed. The stereotype arises from different levels of exposure to English that these teachers have, which result in differences in linguistic performances.
Reves and Medgyes, 1994, identify four main language areas which can be used to differentiate NEST from non-NEST. These areas include vocabulary, fluency, pronunciation and grammar. Vocabulary tends to present challenges for both non-native English speaking teachers and non-NEST. There are so many words in a language, most of which have different meanings. In other words, vocabulary resists mastery. However, by comparison, non-native English speaking teachers are often expected to have more difficulties in this area.
Oral fluency comes with its challenges for all teachers. Qualities such as a high speech rate and readiness to speak are needed for one to be a fluent speaker and hence, a more effective teacher. For non-NEST, it is common for speech to be a clumsy and redundant affair owing to the problems that they have in getting the right sentence structures together at the appropriate time.
Pronunciation is the main distinguishing factor between NEST and non-NEST. The pronunciation of non-NEST is often characteristically foreign. In severe cases, the accent can even interfere with comprehensibility. Since learners take teachers to be role models, they tend to pick up the accent of the teacher. For this reason, it is difficult for these learners to learn the pronunciation of native speakers.
Grammar is one of the areas where non-NESTs always excel. This is because rules are learnable and they are more concrete, unlike issues like pronunciation and vocabulary where one has to keep checking specific details and then piecing together small bits of information all the time. Non-native English speaking teachers are also known to exhibit more keenness to the grammatical errors that their students make in the learning process. On the other hand, native English speaking teachers show little concern for grammar but more emphasis on fluency and ability to communicate.
In case native speakers tend to feel ashamed whenever they are corrected by non-native speakers, which they often do, it is largely because they tend to misinterpret the concept of ‘native speaker’. No wonder it is true that NESTs often feel unsafe having to use the language that they are teaching. This fear seems to be the one that triggers aggressive and pessimistic attitudes. As Kachru and Nelson, 1996 point out, non-NESTs end up being highly prescriptive and completely intolerant.
Teachers who are obsessed with grammar alone and who pay little or no attention to vocabulary and pronunciation are all over the place. These teachers are often so many that English learners often think that their attitude is the right one. Being a non-NEST presents a unique challenge whereby a teacher feels he has not learnt enough English to handle all the questions that learners might throw at him. A viable option is often to take an attitude of total resignation. Another option that is still viable is often to restrict all language lessons to only those grammatical rules that have been learned.
Reves and Medges, 1994, observed in a research that two thirds of learners noted that subtle differences in the teaching methods of NEST and non-NEST. The research indicated that each of them talked and thought about language through completely different approaches. NESTS always seemed more aware and cautious of instilling proper usage patterns in their learners while non-NESTS were paying more attention to the process of learning the language such that all structural patterns had to be explained in great detail.
After carrying out an empirical research on two different teachers,Palfreyman, 1993, came up with two ways of describing approach to language representation among NESTS and non-NESTS, in which he came up with the terms analytic and synthetic approaches respectively. For non-NESTS, teaching situations were free of context while for NESTS, the situations were based on practical linguistic or situational contexts.
Without any doubt, the approaches described by Palfreyman, 1993, often determine the perceptions that different teachers have on the linguistic knowledge of their students. For NESTS, language learning is about making learners consciously aware of the target language in all contexts. For non-NESTS, the concern is not very much on language but rather the ability to mean (Reves and Medges, 1994). However, this issue fuels controversy on which one between communicative ability and form is a more important area of focus when one is learning a second language. One can easily argue in preference of communication, if the proposition that non-NESTs only hold on to form for fear of losing touch with teaching material by holds as true.
Knowledge of English grammar in learning English as a second language
Grammar refers to a finite set of rules that language speakers use in order to create an infinite set of language structures. English as a second language (ESL) speakers need to learn all areas of grammar consciously in order to be able to communicate well in the target language. The term ‘consciously’ is used since there is need to contrast the learning situation of ESL speakers with that of English as First Language (EFL) speakers.
EFL speakers know the grammar of the language but they have learnt it unconsciously, in most cases during childhood. This normally takes place in a natural setting where there is situational use of English (real linguistic contexts). This is because the human brain is endowed with an innate ability to acquire a grammar. However, for ESL, situational use of English may not be enough to enable learners internalize the grammar fast enough. For this reason, the grammatical rules have to be studied and understood consciously.
One of the most troublesome area for students learning English as a second language is subject-verb agreement. Linguists have for decades been sharply divided on the issue of whether problems of subject-verb agreement result from interference from the learner’s first language. For contrastive analysts, the nature of subject-verb agreement problems depends on the subject-verb agreement of the learner’s first language(s). in sharp contrast, proponents of error analysis argue that some the nature of grammatical errors made by all ESL learners follow a predictable pattern in terms of difficulty and the points at which they occur in the course of learning. These two theories have shaped the methodologies that are applied in the teaching of English as a second language today.
Conclusion
Teaching English as a second language comes with many methodological challenges which are often appreciated through testing and evaluation. More research needs to be done in these areas for a unified approach to be employed universally in the learning of English as a second language.
References
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