Question:

Essay Topic

Project Management is no longer about managing the sequence of steps required to complete a project on time. There is a need for a holistic approach to project management in which human issues are considered and there is recognition of the creative element of projects

Successful project managers are expected to establish appropriate organisational and team structures; lead and motivate individuals; manage conflict; attract, select and retain the best people, make optimal decisions and manage change in a way which brings order into chaos whilst maintaining a creative, effective and productive environment.

Select any one, or more, of these competencies and outline the relevant, current theories and their application to project management.

Please use JOURNAL articles for references as many as necessary.

Answer:

Project HR Management

 

Introduction

In recent years, project management has rapidly evolved from mere management of steps and processes that are required for timely completion of projects. The profession has increasingly adopted holistic approaches to the management of projects (Williams 2009, p. 261). Currently, project management continues to gain a human face whereby human issues and creative elements of projects occupy centre stage. Focus has now shifted towards the competencies of project managers in creating effective teams and optimally utilising the human resources at their disposal (Van Der Merwe 1997, p. 230). For the project managers to be successful, they are required to create appropriate team structures, manage conflicts, recruit and retain the best personnel and create a productive environment among other roles (Ulrich, Brockbank, Yeung & Dale 1995, p. 201). This presentation will examine, in a theoretical context, several competencies that are required of project managers in order to be successful in projects they undertake.

 Competency to establishing appropriate organisational and team structures

            One key competence of a successful project manager is the ability to establish appropriate organisational and team structures. Building a well organised team is a prerequisite for a successful project (Turner & Müller 2003, p. 5). Thus, a successful project manager must be able to organise the human resources at his or her disposal into a cohesive team and instil the right attitude among members of the team. For a project management team to prevail over the various difficulties involved in a project, they must possess the right attitude. In most projects, it is the sheer determination of the team that surmounts difficulties and sustain the initiative, thereby culminating in success (Ottaway & Terjeson 1999, p. 300). Even in absence of pressure, the spirit of the team and its enthusiasm is inevitably reflected in the solution’s quality as well as in the level to which others embrace it. Therefore, it is fitting to say that success or failure of a project can be determined by the extent to which a project manager is able to organise a team and instil in it the appropriate attitudes (Belout & Gauvreau 2004, p. 7).

For a project to succeed, the project manager must also organise the team into a cohesive structure. In reality, project teams comprise a mixture of different personnel with different roles (Cameron & Whetten 2000, p. 291). That does not necessarily call for a hierarchy. Therefore, a competent project manager must recognise the fact that the ideal team structures and cultures develop from recognition, by team members, that everyone’s contribution is valuable to the organisation (Thamhain 2004, p. 531). It then follows that there is need for the project manager to recognise each member of the team as leader in as far as their specialised duties are concerned. Indeed, each member of a team must feel they have power and authority over the control of some issues. Otherwise, the issues may be forgotten (Cook, 2000, p. 33).

Project managers must be able to assign each issue to a sub-set of individuals that are most competent and appropriate to deal with it. Here, the term appropriate refers to a combination of special capabilities, resource availability and the requirement to establish a good team (House & Rizzo 1972, p. 501). The project manager must ensure that the formally or informally developed team structure integrates the key aspect of flexibility (Butler 1986, p. 41). This is an indispensable quality that allows the right personnel to work together in any duty. It also allows a leader in one issue to effectively become a contributor for another issue (Pinto & Prescott1988, p. 17). Thus, a successful project manager should be able to create a team in which A could be B’s boss in some areas of a joint effort but B’s is equally A’s boss in other areas. By doing so, the manager is able to establish a highly collaborative group in which everyone is a leader, by virtue of the competencies, in at least one issue. This means that even the most junior member of a team has lead role to play (Packendorf 1995, p. 320).

However, the most successful project manager has to go a mile further in order to achieve the aforementioned team style that is collaboration-based. To achieve this, the project manager should create good friendship with every team member such that everyone would do everything that is required for the project to succeed (Metcalfe 1997, p. 310). This project management approach contrasts remarkably with the classical perspective on a project manager. According to this traditional view, the most recognised and successful project managers are those that “crack the whip”, make sudden judgments, bang tables, talk tough and generally get employees to deliver through absolute exercise of power. Such behaviours are visible with many project managers and they, indeed, lead to recognition and promotion of such managers (Mäkilouko 2004, p. 395).

Nonetheless, such a command of terror only succeeds thus far. There comes a time when participants become immune to such pressure and nothing more can push them to raise their level of contribution. Beyond that point, participants can only leave, thereby culminating in project failure. Conversely, a collaborative approach encourages participants to consider the success of a project as their personal mission. Their determination rises as pressure to deliver on project increases (Kloppenborg & Patrick 1999, p. 12). Therefore, a project manager who establishes an excellent collaborative team will secure optimum level of performance from the team. Underlying this is the dilemma for every career-minded manager. In excellent projects, project managers need not display powerful and personal characteristics. However, it is more likely for the organisation’s management to recognise and reward the talents of a more physically assertive manager (Al-Sedairy 1994, p. 41).

Project manager as leader and motivator

            A successful project manager is also expected to be a competent leader and motivator. Leading of the participants in a project, and motivating them adequately, is essential for the success of any project (Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks 2001, p. 460). Therefore, project managers should possess necessary leadership skills so as to guide project participants towards achieving the project goals (Boddy & Paton 2004, p. 222). Good leadership skills, on the part of the project manager, are also essential in order to influence participants such that they keep focused on the key procedures and processes of achieving the targets. The project manager must also maintain high levels of motivation among the participants with the key objective of securing their commitment and dedication to the project (Morris 2006, p. 48). This is necessary as it contributes to high quality performance and ensures that projects are accomplished in time.

Many scholars in the area of project human resource management agree that project managers must design appropriate mechanisms to keep participants at high level of motivation (Goffee & Jones 2000, p. 89). The mechanism adopted must be able to positively influence the behaviour of project participants in a way that contributes to optimum performance. Recognition, reward and provision of other form of incentives are among the mechanisms that project managers should adopt in order to maintain high performance levels by bolstering the motivation of project teams (Cooke-Davies 2001, p. 187). To achieve this, project managers should formally carry out performance assessments and effect the relevant reward processes. Performance assessment should aim at addressing the key objectives of individuals, whether or not the current project is an important factor in the performance assessment or in the individual objectives. Additional incentives, relating to the current project, should be introduced to secure the motivation of participants. For example, project mangers could introduce bonuses for beating project deadlines (Bu-Bushait 1989, p. 21).

As a leader, the project manager has to be at his or her best in motivating others. As leader, the manager has the enormous task of engaging project participants in working on tasks in a way that gives them a sense of ownership and self-esteem. But, how a project manager can adequately motivate people remains the most important question. Several theories come in handy to aid project managers in motivating people (Dalton, Todor, Spendolini, Fielding & Porter 1980, p. 58). The needs theory asserts that there are five most important needs that human beings seek to fulfil. They are psychological needs, safety, social needs, need for self esteem and self-actualisation. For the purpose of this presentation, self-actualisation is the most relevant for project managers. It is the desire to attain maximum potential in one’s undertaking. It is a persistent goal once the other four are achieved and it represents an intrinsic need. Therefore, the need for self-actualisation is important to project managers as they need to create favourable environment in which participants can attain self-actualisation (Antonakis, Avolio, & Sivasubramaniam 2003, p.284).

The cognitive dissonance theory is also relevant to project management. This theory has its roots in the need to resolve two contradictory cognitions at the creative level of the sub-conscious mind. It is the dissonance that arises when the mind recognises something wrong and the ensuing need to resolve it. Though levels of cognitive dissonance vary from one person to another, in the workplace, staff who have high sensitivity to issues of cognitive dissonance are likely to be more persistent in their tasks as well as in dedicating the best of their abilities to assigned tasks. This is a type of intrinsic motivation where the individuals concerned persistently seek to improve themselves.

The incentive theory of motivation is also relevant to project managers. Project managers must be ready to appreciate the fact that some people will always seek and expect further reward or compensation for their work. This happens regardless of the amount of salary they earn. It is also important for project managers to understand that tangible, as well as intangible, rewards have the potential to motivate some people to work (Kendra & Taplin 2004, p. 42). The associated incentive motivates the people receiving it to repeat the behaviours that earned the reward. When a reward is received, it satisfies a seemingly existent need. In the light of this theory, it follows that project managers must come up with mechanisms for further staff compensation in form of rewards. This will ensure high levels of motivation among the staff and will eventually translate to high productivity.

Goal setting theory has a lot of significance in motivation and is, therefore, relevant to project managers. Goal setting simply means setting goals for oneself or for others to achieve. The purpose of goal setting is to break down huge tasks into smaller ones. In essence, the setting of goals simply breaks down large tasks into smaller ones. As each goal is achieved, the person who achieves it attains the feelings of empowerment and, thereby is pushed on to accomplish more and more goals or objectives (Hartman & Ashrafi 2002, p. 10). SMART is the acronym applied in goal setting. It means that goals should be Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant and Timed. By setting SMART goals, a project manager effectively gives the person to whom the goals are allocated a clear framework within which to accomplish the goal. This level of guidance is especially essential to a project manager who is dealing with people who might have the tendency to find ways of shunning the work that is assigned to them, while they actually did the work. This is better known as creative avoidance. Alternatively, failure to make goals SMART may lead to people seeking a state of perfection. This, more often than not, results in unfinished work.

As a team leader, the project manager must expect team members to look upon him or her to solve problems and get rid of obstacles. Consequently, project managers must be capable of addressing and solving these problems as they arise, both within the team and outside the team. Management by example theory has been advanced to explain how project managers can solve some of these problems. This theory opines that team members always watch all the actions and behaviours of project managers (Belout 1998, p.25). Thus, project managers must maintain high levels of integrity, be knowledgeable and conduct affairs in a direct manner. Project managers can only gain respect from team members if they tackle all types of problems as they arise. If a problem is beyond the ability of a project manager and his or her team to solve, it should be escalated to senior management.

The manager should also be a hard worker, and eventually his actions and behaviours become contagious. They should also define team expectations. The manager should get agreement, in writing, from individual members of the team. This is a major step towards averting problems in the future, such as members of a team claiming that a certain tasks are not their job. Thus, performance expectations should be clearly defined right from the beginning of a project (Clarke 1999, p. 140). The Management By Walking About theory also explains how project managers- as leaders- should operate. It holds that a good project manager should get out and inspect what the staff members are doing, with or without a specific reason. This theory, essentially, cautions project managers from over-concentrating on plan consolidation and review of deliverables at the expense of direct interaction with individual team members (Eddie 2011, p. 1001).

Conflict Management competency

Project managers spend about two-fifths of their time trying to reach agreement with other participants when conflicts occur. Therefore, they need to be as competent as possible in handling conflicts (Wall & Callister 2002, p. 525). Within a team setup where conflict management is part of the project manager’s work, the manager is required to have problem solving skills, set goals, reconcile personality differences, compromise and resolve work-related disputes (Cloke & Goldsmith 2000, p. 28). They should undergo training in order to acquire the necessary conflict management skills. This competence is vital in the project manager’s endeavour to create a favourable working environment. A team environment that is characterised by conflicts is unfavourable to successful pursuit of project goals (Rahim, Manger & Shapiro 2000, p.27).

However, one important aspect of conflicts that project managers should understand is the fact that conflicts are sometimes constructive and healthy in team environment. Indeed, the modern theory of conflict management sees conflict as an inescapable and natural product of human interaction (Lundin & Soderholm 1995, p. 440). This theory is based on the fact that individuals possess different ideas and view issues more from subjective perspectives and, therefore, when the different perspectives are brought together, they inevitably collide. This, at least according to the modern theory of conflict management, is the basis of conflicts within teams and in organisations in general (Baccarini 1999, p. 31). However, it is noteworthy that the modern theory of conflict management has a positive outlook on conflicts. Accordingly, it opines that conflict situations are the fountain of new and creative ideas that are the bedrock of change within an organisation (Harrigan, 1982, p. 715). Therefore, this theory essentially advocates for project managers to view conflicts positively as they have the potential to generate new and innovative ideas that are required for project success (Alimo-Metcalfe, & Alban-Metcalfe 2001, p. 19).

According to Johnston & Brennan, conflicts can contribute to individual development and improve team performance. This is made possible by building on individual assets (Johnston & Brennan 1996, p. 377). Another positive aspect of conflict is that they bring forth underlying issues. Conflicts compel members of a team to confront head-on potential flaws in a solution and seek a better one. Emergence of conflicts in team environment gives the project manager the opportunity to grasp the real interests and needs of individual members of the team. In the process, communication around those controversial issues is induced (Hodgson 2002, p. 811). Furthermore, it pre-empts premature and unsuitable resolution of conflicts. If the people engaging in a conflict personally grow from it, it amounts to a constructive conflict and is a positive development in as far as the roles and goals of the project manager are concerned. This is due to the fact that a successfully resolved conflict results in more cohesiveness among the team members (Al-Tabtabai, Alex & Aboualfotouh 2001, p. 9).

On the other hand, if the conflict is not managed appropriately it may prove destructive to the organisation by compromising team unity and relationships as well as erode interpersonal connections. This essentially hampers the project manager’s chance of success by diverting energy from important project activities (Friedman, Tidd, Currall & Tsai 2000, p. 52). It also threatens project success by eating into the morale of the team and by polarising team members. This calls on the project manager to discreetly deal with conflict situations so as not to derail efforts towards successful completion of a project. This is a key competence required of modern project managers as there is need to understand both the potential positive and negative impacts of conflict in a team environment (Clegg & Courpasson 2004, p. 533). The main objective of project managers when they engage in conflict management is for the conflict to bear a positive outcome that does not compromise the success of the project and to set a favourable framework within which future conflicts can be resolved (Fournier & Grey 2000, p.31).

Conclusion

To sum up, it is hard to ignore the fact that the profession of project management has rapidly evolved in recent years. The profession has increasingly placed more emphasis on the human element in the whole process of project management (Morris 2002, p. 88). Focus has shifted from mere project management sequences to method of organisation and management of the human resources at the disposal of project managers. In order keep pace with evolving changes and demands in modern projects, project managers are required to refine their competencies to avoid surprises of cancelled projects, behind-schedule deliveries, cost overruns, disgruntled customers, among other surprises (Van Der Merwe 1998, p. 68). This can only be achieved if project managers put into practice their skills in creating effective organisational and team structures, leading and motivating team members, as well as effectively managing conflicts in order to create a productive environment (Maynor 2001, p. 90).

 

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